INP4004

8. MOTIVATION

Internal regulatory processes of behavior

Direction: What should I do?

Intensity: How hard should I try?

Persistence: Should I keep going?

Distal

Processes far removed from the actual behavior

Needs—what I want but not how I will get it.

Proximal

Processes close to the actual behavior

Intentions—what I plan to do now

NEED THEORIES

Need hierarchy

Maslow

Behavior determined by five needs

Physiological, Safety, Love, Esteem, Self‑actualization

Movement up the hierarchy

Existence, Relatedness, Growth, ERG

Alderfer

Behavior determined by three needs

Movement back and forth

Attempt to fix some limitations of Maslow

Two-Factor

Herzberg

Work behavior determined by two classes of needs

Hygiene factors, rewards and social factors

Motivator factors, nature of work

Theory says only motivator factors can motivate work performance

One of the few theories abandoned based on data

REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Operant conditioning

Skinner

Law of Effect – Thorndike 1913

Response = f(reinforcement)

Behavior ‑‑> Reward ‑‑‑> Greater likelihood of Behavior

Basis of incentive systems

Research results:

High productivity with piece rates

Sucessful for reducing absence

Workers often prefer hourly (too much pressure)

EXPECTANCY THEORY

Cognitive reinforcement theory

Vroom

Expectancy that behavior leads to rewards

Value of rewards

Multiplicative implies all must be high

Predicts motivation not performance

Force = Exp (Sum Valence x Instrumentality)

Expectancy: Effort‑Performance

Instrumentality: Performance‑Reward

Valence: Value of rewards to the person

Meta-analysis finds support Van Eerde, 1996

Mean correlations of VIE formula with

Preference: .74

Intention: .42

Effort: .29

Performance: .19

Predicts distal better than proximal

(Van Eerde, 1996, Journal of Applied Psychology)

SELF-EFFICACY

Self-confidence in task performance

Bandura

Belief in self-efficacy increases motivation

Galatea Effect – personal self-fulfilling prophesy

Dov Eden

Increases job performance

Study showing effects on seasickness

Naval cadets in Israel

Training session during which cadets told they were unlikely to

get sick at sea.

Random assignment to training or control group

Manipulation effective

Less sickness

Better performance

(Eden & Zuk, 1995, Journal of Applied Psychology)

EQUITY THEORY

Theory about fairness and justice

Adams

Balance between Inputs & Outcomes

Imbalance motivates behavior

Homeostatic approach

Overpayment ‑‑> Increase effort

Underpayment ‑‑> Decreased effort, turnover

Replaced by justice theories

Distributive justice

Fairness with which rewards are allocated

Procedural justice

Fairness with process by which rewards are allocated

GOAL SETTING

Goals direct and focus behavior

Locke

Goals must be accepted

Goal specificity: specific, difficult goals most effective

Survey of British companies: 79% use goals (Yearta et al., 1995, Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology)

Often works, but has limitations

Group goals work better with work groups

Not all jobs easy to set goals

ACTION THEORY (Action regulation)

German comprehensive theory of work behavior

Attributable to Hacker (English, Michael Frese & Dieter Zapf, 1994, Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology)

Provides good contrast to US I/O approaches

Based on goal setting, but far more extensive than US theories

Major focus is on goal oriented or intentional behavior

Behaviors are called actions

Actions result from conscious intentions to accomplish something

Theory is concerned with the process linking goals to behavior, and how goals and behavior are regulated

Cognitive theory

Action Sequence

Task àGoalàPlan generationàExecutionàFeedback

Task: Internal or external thing to be accomplished at work

External assigned by supervisor

Internal chosen by worker

External task redefined by worker—idiosyncratic

Potential conflict between supervisor and employee task

Goal development: Thing to be accomplished

Big or small: Develop new motor to finish piece on line

Plan generation: Decide on steps needed to accomplish goal

Not necessarily detailed or fully developed

Back-up plan

Hierarchy of levels (movements to accomplishing things)

Walk up the stairs to study for an exam

Long-range vs. short-range

Execution: Carry out plans

Feedback: Information about progress toward goal

Concurrent: Feedback as actions occur

Terminal: Feedback about results of action

Example of Action Process

Step	Example
Task	Teach fourth grade class
Goal development	Provide outstanding learning experience for students
Plan generation	Upgrade skills by taking classes
Execution	Register for summer course
Feedback	Receive an ‘A’ in summer course

Control/Autonomy: Allows for better planning and better regulation

Allows adjustments of plans and actions

Personality:

Personality as dependent variable

Different approach from US

Personality is developed through work experience

Focus on work design (as development opportunities)

SUMMARY OF MOTIVATION THEORIES

Theory	Theorist	Basis For Motivation	Major Constructs
Need Hierarchy	Maslow	Unfulfilled needs	5 need categories
ERG	Alderfer	Fulfilled and unfulfilled needs	3 need categories
Two Factor	Herzberg	Needs	Hygiene vs. motivator factors
Reinforcement	Skinner	Rewards and punishments	Stimulus, Response, and Reinforcers
Expectancy	Vroom	Expectations for desired outcomes	Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence
Equity	Adams	Perceived injustice	Inputs and Outcomes
Self-Efficacy	Bandura	Feelings of competence	Perceived competence
Goal Setting	Locke	Individual objectives	Goal acceptance and difficulty
Action	Hacker	Goal-oriented behavior	Goals, plans, actions, feedback