NOVEMBER 27/28/29: THE EARLY MIDDLE AGES: LOST WORLDS
READINGS (Monday, November 27): The Anglo-Saxon World, pp. 144-48, 182-85 (The Dream of the Rood), 251-59 (Allegories), 272-75 (The Fortunes of Men)
READINGS (Tuesday night, November 28): The Anglo-Saxon World, pp. 44-56 (Elegies), 61-142 (Beowulf), 144-48, 182-85 (The Dream of the Rood), 251-59 (Allegories), 272-75 (The Fortunes of Men)
READINGS (Wednesday, November 29): The Anglo-Saxon World, pp. 44-56 (Elegies), 61-142 (Beowulf)
Summary:
In this class, we turn from the individual conversion to Christianity, described in Augustine's Confessions, to the transformation of a society and culture, that of early medieval Britain. We will use the British Isles as an example of how an early medieval culture arose from the blending of different cultural traditions: the legacy of Rome, the Judeo-Christian writings of the Bible, the institutions of Christianity, and the heritage of the Germanic and Celtic peoples of northern Europe.
     Seventh-, eighth- and ninth-century works of art from the British Isles - the treasure from the Sutton Hoo ship burial and the splendid gospel manuscripts from the monasteries of Britain and Ireland - illustrate the diverse cultural traditions and wide-ranging contacts of the Anglo-Saxons at the time of their conversion to Christianity in the seventh century. The illuminated manuscripts, in particular, provide evidence of the complex process of accommodation among the different Christian traditions of Celtic Ireland, Anglo-Saxon England, Rome, and the Mediterranean in the seventh and eighth centuries.
     Beowulf, a poem composed in Old English, probably in the eighth or ninth century, gives a glimpse of the earlier legends, heroic tales, and history of the pagan peoples of northern Europe, Britain, and Scandinavia. The author, however, speaks from a Christian perspective for a Christian audience. He links the traditional tales with biblical history, and occasionally offers moralizing commentaries. The strange tale and lament of the last survivor who had "cautiously concealed ancient treasures, the enormous legacy of a noble people" (p. 130) and the gloomy tone of nostalgia and foreboding throughout the poem remind us that this is a fleeting image of a lost world.

HISTORICAL SETTING: ROME, CHRISTIANITY AND THE BRITISH ISLES
     Roman troops withdrew from Britain in 410, after occupying much of the island since the first century. Christianity had spread among the native Britons before the Roman forces withdrew. During the fifth and sixth centuries, pagan Germanic peoples of diverse tribes - Angles, Saxons, Jutes, Frisians, and Danes (some of the peoples remembered in Beowulf ) - settled in eastern and southern England. In 597, Pope Gregory I the Great (590-604) sent a Christian mission led by Augustine ( not the author of the Confessions!!!) to the southeastern kingdom of Kent. King Ethelbert of Kent was a pagan, but he was married to a Christian princess, Bertha, from the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks (in what is now France). Ethelbert converted to Christianity, and Christianity gradually spread among neighboring kingdoms, like Essex and East Anglia (site of the Sutton Hoo ship burial), as well. The king of Northumbria,  Edwin, married a Christian princess, Ethelburga, from Kent, and she was accompanied by an Italian priest, Paulinus, who had been part of Augustine's mission. Edwin was baptized in 627, but he was killed in battle in 632. The pagan invaders were driven out and a rival branch of the Northumbrian royal family took the throne. The new king, Oswald (634-42) and his brother, Oswy (642-70), had spent time in exile in Scotland where they had been converted to Christianity by the Irish monks of Iona. As kings, they brought the monk Aidan from Iona to Northumbria where he established a monastery at Lindisfarne (where the Lindisfarne Gospels were later made ). In 664, differences between the Irish church and the Roman missionaries were settled in favor of Roman practices at the Synod of Whitby in Northumbria, and, over the next century, Irish monasteries gradually accepted the decisions. Northumbrian monasteries, like Benedict Biscop's foundation at Wearmouth-Jarrow, maintained close ties with Rome: clergymen visited Rome, and books and objects of art were exchanged.
     Christianity had come to Ireland from Britain in the fifth century. Ireland had never formed part of the Roman empire, and the conversion of the Irish to Christianity is traditionally credited to Patrick , a fifth-century Briton who had been taken into slavery in Ireland as a youth, escaped, and later returned to Ireland to convert the pagan Irish. A bishop Palladius had preceded him (c. 431), but little is known about his work. In the sixth and seventh centuries, the Irish church developed a distinctly monastic character. Monasticism was a form of the religious life that, in varying degrees, involved the withdrawal from the world, the renunciation of personal property, and the adoption of a life of prayer, fasting, and sexual abstinence. Monks typically lived within communities, and pledged obedience to an abbot; some embarked upon the more demanding solitary life of the hermit. Within Christianity, the monastic movement developed in fourth-century Egypt, and is associated with Antony, who led the eremitic life of a solitary, and Pachomius, who founded large monastic communities in the Egyptian desert. Columba (died 597) was a important figure in the monastic church of early Ireland, and he founded a family of linked monasteries, including those at Durrow (where the Book of Durrow may have been made) and Iona. Columbanus (died 615) travelled to the European continent, and, with followers, founded monasteries in France and Italy.

IMPORTANT SITES AND WORKS OF ART FROM EARLY MEDIEVAL BRITAIN AND IRELAND

-THE SUTTON HOO SHIP BURIAL
The ship burial at Sutton Hoo is believed to be the grave of the East Anglian King Raedwald who died c. 625. It was first excavated in 1939, and the treasure included arms and armor, gold coins, gold and jeweled objects of personal adornment, bowls, drinking cups, and textiles. They display extraordinary craftsmanship, and the objects show the wide-ranging connections of the Anglo-Saxon kings. They include, for example, silver bowls and tableware from the eastern Mediterranean, a hanging bowl decorated with enamels and glass in a Celtic style, gold coins from the Merovingian kingdom in Gaul (modern France), and several pieces of Anglo-Saxon manufacture adorned with garnets and glass.
Web sites: 1) the treasure in the collection of the British Museum , 2) the Sutton Hoo site
-ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS
-THE BOOK OF DURROW
The Book of Durrow is a gospel book generally dated to the late seventh century and believed to be from Durrow, an Irish monastery founded in the middle of the sixth century by Columba. It includes decorated lettering , interlace and a wide variety of geometric motifs, curvilinear designs and highly stylized animals, particularly on the so-called carpet pages . These pages, covered with ornamental decoration, face the opening page of each gospel, and they resemble the decoration of contemporary metalwork, like some of the pieces from Sutton Hoo. There are also full-page representations of the symbols of the evangelists, in a highly colored, abstract style.
Web sites: 1)  illustrations of pages from the manuscript ; 2) brief discussion of the manuscript
-THE LINDISFARNE GOSPELS
The Lindisfarne Gospels were probably produced at Lindisfarne, the Northumbrian monastery founded by Aidan. The book includes a colophon (an endnote explaining the circumstances of the book's making) added by an Anglo-Saxon monk, Aldred, c. 950-60, who also added an interlinear Old English translation of the Gospels to the Latin text. Aldred attributed the making of the book to bishop Eadfrith of Lindisfarne (698-721), its binding to his successor, bishop Aethilwold (c. 721-40), and its metal decoration (now lost) to the hermit or anchorite, Billfrith. Scholars have generally accepted this information, and the book is likely to have been made in the early eighth century, perhaps as part of the promotion of the cult of St. Cuthbert, a monk and bishop of Lindisfarne (died 687) whose tomb was venerated there.
It is a large (343x248 mm), luxury manuscript that always would have been intended for display, not for use: the large parchment pages were made from carefully prepared calfskin (vellum), and the skins of more than one hundred and fifty calves may have been needed. Besides the four gospels, the book includes the introductory preface of Jerome (who translated the Bible into the Latin version known as the Vulgate), and the individual gospels have prefatory material on their authorship and their use in the liturgy. The book is splendidly decorated with canon tables (concordances indexing the passages shared by different gospels ) set in architectural frames, portraits of the evangelists in human form, intricate carpet pages, and magnificently enlarged and decorated lettering on the opening page of each gospel. There are also numerous smaller initial letters with different degrees of colored decoration.
Web sites: 1) British Museum exhibition ; 2) Virtual Seminar: Michelle Brown's discussion of the manuscript ; 3) additional illustrations
-THE BOOK OF KELLS
The Book of Kells is one of the most famous of all medieval manuscripts because of its rich and intricate decoration. It is generally dated to the late eighth century, and many scholars believe it was produced at Iona. Besides the elaborate canon tables, decorated initials and a proliferation of ornament on minor letters, it includes several distinctive full-page illustrations, e.g., the Temptation of Christ, the Arrest of Christ, and the Virgin and Child.
Web sites: 1) illustrations of pages from the manuscript
GLIMPSES OF THE SCULPTURE OF EARLY MEDIEVAL EUROPE

 
Lombard art; 8th-century relief from a chancel barrier; cross, interlace, and evangelist symbols; Pisa, Museo Nazionale

   
Mozarabic art; 10th-century capitals, San Miguel de Escalada, San Cebrián de Mazote

   
Visigothic art; late 7th-century capitals; Daniel in the Lions' Den, St. Paul, Abraham and Isaac; San Pedro de la Nave

INTRODUCTION TO BEOWULF
     The Old English poem, Beowulf, survives in a single manuscript, generally dated to the beginning of the eleventh century (c. 1000-1010), and that manuscript was damaged in a fire in 1731. All of our editions of the text are based on this one example. Scholars disagree widely about when and where the poem was composed, and what roles oral traditions, formulaic composition, and scribal editing may have had in the formation of the text. Proposed dates for the poem range from the early eighth to the early eleventh century.
     The poem is set in the pagan Germanic past, among the peoples inhabiting the coasts of the North Sea. Other sources make it possible to relate one of the kings mentioned in Beowulf, king Hygelac of the Geats, to a historical event in the early sixth century. While the setting of the poem and the characters within it are pagan, the author refers directly - and indirectly - to the Bible and Christianity. The poem has two principal parts of unequal length: in the first part, the Geatish warrior, Beowulf, travels to the Danish kingdom to aid king Hrothgar whose banqueting hall, Heorot, has been ravaged by a monster, Grendel. Beowulf slays Grendel and, in a second battle, kills Grendel's mother. Richly rewarded by Hrothgar, he returns to his kingdom and tells the story of his exploits to his uncle, king Hygelac of the Geats. Then, in the second - shorter - part, the poet jumps ahead to Beowulf's old age: king Hygelac was killed in battle; his son, Heardred, was killed by the Swedes; Beowulf succeeded to the throne and has now ruled for fifty years... In the final sections, he battles with a dragon that has been awoken and enraged by the theft of the treasure he guarded within a mound.

PRINCIPAL CHARACTERS AND NAMES
The Danes
-Heremod: ancient Danish king, used as an example of a wicked ruler (e.g., pp. 96, 116-17)
-Scyld Scefing: mythological founder of the Danish royal dynasty, great-grandfather of Hrothgar; the prologue describes his mysterious arrival as a castaway, and his funeral on a ship laden with treasure and set adrift
-Hrothgar: Danish king, son of king Healfdene, husband of Queen Wealhtheow, builder of the banqueting hall named Heorot
-Freawaru: daughter of Hrothgar, her marriage to Ingeld (pp. 124-25), prince of the Heathobards, will fail to settle the feuds between their houses
-Hrothulf: the nephew of Hrothgar who later seized the throne from Hrothgar's son, Hrethric; his treachery is foreshadowed (p. 103)
-Unferth: a Danish warrior who killed his own brothers; he challenged Beowulf upon his arrival, but later lent him his sword, Hrunting , which proved useless in the battle with Grendel's mother
-Aeschere: a counsellor of Hrothgar, killed by Grendel's mother
The Geats (the people of the hero, Beowulf)
-Hrethel: the former king of the Geats, father of Hygelac; Beowulf tells his story before he confronts the dragon (pp. 135-36)
-Hygelac: king of the Geats, uncle of Beowulf; he is killed in a battle with the Franks, during a feud he started with the Frisians.
-Hygd: queen of the Geats
-Heardred: son and successor of king Hygelac, killed by the Swedes
-Wiglaf: companion of Beowulf in his last fight with the dragon

The Monsters
-Grendel: the monster or demon that ravages Heorot and is killed by Beowulf; he is described as a descendant of the biblical figure Cain , the wicked son of Adam and Eve who killed his brother, Abel, and was the first murderer.

Outline of the Story
Prologue, pp. 74-75: a description of the mysterious arrival and funeral of Scyld Scefing, ancestor of the Danish kings
pp. 75-78: The Danish king, Hrothgar, builds the great banqueting hall, Heorot, but it is ravaged and left desolate by Grendel , the monstrous descendant of Cain.
pp. 79-86: Beowulf, a warrior of the Geats, learns of Hrothgar's troubles, and travels to the Danish kingdom to subdue Grendel. Wulfgar presents Beowulf and his men to King Hrothgar, and Beowulf declares that he will fight Grendel. Hrothgar remembers how he once protected Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow .
pp. 86-90: Unferth challenges Beowulf's bravery by recalling his swimming contest with Breca. Beowulf defends himself, reminds Unferth that he was the killer of his own brothers, and taunts him for his inability to prevent Grendel's attacks. Queen Wealhtheow joins the feast.
pp. 90-94: Grendel attacks Heorot by night, kills one of Beowulf's men, but Beowulf rips off his arm, mortally wounding the monster who flees to the swamps.
pp. 94-100: The Danes celebrate Beowulf's victory. A poet composes a poem comparing him with Sigemund, an ancient Germanic hero and dragon-slayer. Hrothgar praises Beowulf, Beowulf describes the fight, and Hrothgar rewards him with generous gifts.
pp. 100-103: At the banquet, the bard sings the song of Finn. It describes a battle between the Danes and Frisians. Finn, the king of the Frisians and Jutes, had married the Danish noblewoman, Hildeburh , sister of the Danish warrior, Hnaef. Despite the marriage, war broke out, Hildeburh's son and her brother (Hnaef) were both killed. Finn made peace with Hengest, the surviving leader of the Danish warriors, but the truce was broken, Finn was killed, and Hildeburh returned to the Danish kingdom.
pp. 103-105: Beowulf receives more presents including "the finest golden collar in the world". It is compared with the legendary necklace of the Brosings, an ancient Norse tribe, and we learn that Beowulf's uncle, Hygelac , will be slain by the Franks while wearing this collar.
pp. 105-114: Grendel's mother avenges the death of her son by attacking Heorot by night and carrying off the counsellor, Aeschere. Hrothgar tells Beowulf of the reports about Grendel and his mother, and of the lake of monsters. Beowulf accompanies the Danes to the lake where they find the head of Aeschere. Beowulf enters the lake with Unferth's sword, Hrunting. Although the sword proves useless, Beowulf kills Grendel's mother.
pp. 114-119: Beowulf presents Hrothgar with the spoils of his battle, including a sword hilt, made by the giants and decorated with a scene of the great flood. Hrothgar delivers a sermon, praising Beowulf, warning him of the dangers of wickedness, and contrasting him with the wicked king Heremod
pp. 119-123: Beowulf and his men return to the land of the Geats. The poet contrasts queen Hygd of the Geats with the wicked princess Thryth.
pp. 123-129: Hygelac receives Beowulf. Beowulf tells of the promised marriage of Hrothgar's daughter, Freawaru, to the Heathobard prince, Ingeld, and of the feuds that divide their houses. Then, he recounts his own exploits: the killing of Grendel and Grendel's mother. Finally, he presents Hygelac with gifts. The poet jumps ahead, and he tells how, after Hygelac and his son, Heardred, both died in battle, Beowulf became king and ruled for fifty years, until a dragon was disturbed...
pp. 129-134: A slave stole a goblet from the dragon's treasure, enraging the dragon, and the poet tells how the treasure had been buried in the ground by the last survivor of a great race. As the poet describes Beowulf's preparations to fight the dragon, he gives us a "flashback", explaining how Hygelac and his son, Heardred, were killed, and referring to some of Beowulf's earlier battles.
pp. 134-38: Beowulf leads a band of twelve warriors to face the dragon, and he recalls how he was raised by king Hrethel, the father of Hygelac, the misfortunes suffered by that king, and the later battles of Hygelac and the Swedes.
pp. 138-142: Beowulf battles the dragon. Only one of his companions, Wiglaf, comes to Beowulf's aid, as the others flee. The dragon is killed.
pp. 142-151: Mortally wounded, Beowulf asks Wiglaf to fetch the treasure so that he may see it before he dies. Wiglaf rebukes Beowulf's companions for their cowardice, prepares the hero's funeral, and foresees difficult times for the Geats, as the Frisians, Franks, and Swedes may resume their feuds with the Geats.
pp. 151-54: the funeral of Beowulf

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
-When the poet describes the building of Heorot, the banqueting hall (pp. 75-76), he foreshadows its destruction by fire "when a mortal feud should flare between father- and son-in-law". Why does the poet reveal this here? How does he use foreshadowing elsewhere in the poem?
-What is the significance of Grendel's descent from the biblical figure, Cain? Can you find other references to the Bible and Christianity?
-How does Finn's story (pp. 100-03) relate to that of Beowulf? How do other stories and digressions enrich the story of Beowulf?
-Why do you think Unferth's sword is useless against Grendel's mother? Why had the Danes been unable to rid themselves of Grendel?
-In Hrothgar's sermon (pp. 116-18), what is his advice to Beowulf? How does he contrast him with Heremod? How does the poet use such contrasts elsewhere in the poem?
-When Beowulf returns to king Hygelac (pp. 124-25), why does he begin his account with the story of Freawaru and Ingeld?
-Can the dragon and Beowulf's battle with the dragon be compared with his earlier battles with Grendel and Grendel's mother?
-How does the story (pp. 130-31) of the last survivor and the origins of the dragon's treasure contribute to the poem?
-The poem begins and ends with a funeral. It describes a series of three combats between Beowulf and a monster. It is divided into two unequal parts treating Beowulf's youth and old age. What other structural patterns, symmetries, and repetitions can you find in the poem?  How are they used?
-COMPARING WORKS>>> Can you compare the way the Christian poet of Beowulf used earlier pagan material with Virgil's use of the Homeric epics?
-COMPARING WORKS>>> Can Beowulf be compared with the heroes of the ancient epics?
-COMPARING WORKS>>> In the Iliad and the Aeneid, women were at the center of discord and rivalry. Do women create - or resolve - conflicts in Beowulf?
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< style="font-weight: bold;">DECEMBER 4, 5, 6 (DANTE'S INFERNO: A CHRISTIAN EPIC)
SCHEDULE OF READINGS (Monday/Wednesday)
SCHEDULE OF READINGS (Tuesday night)
RETURN TO HUM 2211